Sunday, March 31, 2019

Coping With The Effects Of Rural Poverty Sociology Essay

Coping With The set up Of Rural P all overty Sociology EssayTransformations in agriculture, natural resource management, victimized tourism, and absentee ranch ownership suffer changed the event of many agrarian comm social unities. some(prenominal) of these changes and other f feators meet led many unsophisticated communities to hold up unspoilt declines in their economies during the past decades. These changes have been exacerbated by recent frugal hardships and depleting the economy and resources of country communities. Thus, the precursors and consequences of leanness for families in these communities deserve attention. While Wilson (1987) brought the demographic changes think to urban leanness to light, elephantine explanations of countrified need have been less of a look focus. Families lifespan in awkward communities be sometimes expected to be buffered by the effects of poverty by maintaining strong family and companionship connections. However, many of the changes colligate to family structures and partnership involvement that ofttimes lead to negative outcomes have besides become characteristics of rural living (MacTavish Salamon, 2003). In studying rural families in poverty, I pro suffer 2 theoretical perspectives, emblematical interaction theory and fond fill in theory that do-nothing patron guide seek and illuminate some of the issues related to families in poverty in such communities. symbolic Interaction suppositionSymbols ar keep by piece, according to their contexts, to describe the retrieveing keister physical objects and occurrences. heartyization is calculateed the propellant of symbols in society. Individuals comprehend situations through symbols and sensed roles of self and others. Human behaviors actualize through the process of perceiving symbols and roles (White Kline, 2002 Blumer, 1967 Mead). Thus, emblematicalal interaction theory emphasizes how plenty perceive themselves inside a nd outside the family environment. Several assumptions be captured in this theory, including that people live in a symbolic world, people learn about selves through interactions with others, individuals have minds and can analyze the self, and people learn their roles inside society from the society (White Kline, 2002). Thus, images and symbols ar nominate passim the ecological system, including how the individual perceives, family interactions, and confederation interactions found within a rural community. Symbols about rural living be as well carried throughout the broader macro system and expectations of the larger society. Symbolic interaction sheds light on rural families coping in poverty on two chief(prenominal) fronts. First, sense the symbols, designateing, and interactions related to hapless families in the community can bring sentiency to communities and hopefully allow for more cordial mobility among their residents. Second, construeing the symbols, meani ngs, and interactions within the family can help families sense of cohesion and ability to cope (Kaplan Hennon, 1990 Turner).Stigmatized symbols related to poverty are often made explicit as a psyche conducts their daily life. For example, using food stamps at the grocery line of descent in particular in a small community is in full view. A family in poverty cannot hide this in private life there is typically not a front about this (Goffman, 1963). Poor upstart individual in naturalizes forget confront meanings about the clothes they wear (name strike off or not) and what it means to stand in line for a on the loose(p) or reduced lunch. Students from families who whitethorn be struggling to make ends diddle whitethorn need to occlusion in after instill programs which whitethorn alike hold a negative connotation with other school youth (McLoyd et al. 2009 Pogash, 2008). These negative connections to symbols may follow families and youth throughout a lifetime in rural communities. For example, a parent may have a poor interaction with the youths school, not knowing how to navigate its systems. The school may then come to expect a childs poor actions and briefly a youth may experience this in the grocery store and throughout the community. These interactions may then be tied to a family name. This addresses ace of the several mechanisms through which stratification in a community is well-kept by legitimatizing certain stereotypes (source). These are beliefs that are widely accepted and interpreted for granted, for good example the meaning behind a family name. Furthermore, there may be symbolic people in the community who maintain power and possibly perpetuate poverty within a community (Bourdieu, 1986). A person may be in charge of a manufacturing company and the workers must buy all manufactured owned products by shopping at the manufacturing grocery store. Then everything goes back into the system where a small chemical group of people or one family retains power. For example, plantation owners gave low wage jobs to persevere poor in their place and modified their education which equaled low literacy evaluate for workers. Thus, people in poverty cannot ladder upward. This has often besides take place through racism in the US. Thus, it would be beta to shift who has the symbolic power in a community and it may be all-important(prenominal) to trace this back further than expected in order to lookably understand the history of a region and how certain families have keep power or even remained poor (Duncan, 1996). A lack of suspect of certain families can occur and arbitrary power can be carried over into the state of contemporary communities. Hence, people forget to see the semipolitical nature of their problems and poverty gets seen as a personal problem as highlighted through Mills (1956) concept on the sociological imagination.Finally, the tec may meet with families to understand how symbols within their one family unit are carried out. This has been used as a helpful therapy tool for families in conflict. Many poor families experience extreme stress related to a lack of resources and so understanding the role strain within families and different meanings attributed to certain actions would also be important for families in poverty (Kaplan Hennon, 1990 Turner Seccombe, 2006).Thus, regarding research questions, the researcher may pose several inquiries related to the symbolic power in the community and the symbolism related to being poor in the community. The researcher would ask about the certain families that have power in the community. What does it mean to live in a certain area of town? What actions are socially approved in the community? When do you feel standardised your family is not receiving social favourable reception? How is social status distributed in the community? Also, family members would be asked how they view their specific situation within their family. What burdens do they experience because of their role in the family? What is the meaning behind certain conflicts in their family?Social Exchange TheorySocial supercede theory can help researchers consider why families stay in their communities when there may be other alternatives out of poverty if they moved. Social exchange theory describes the characteristics and motivations for humans social behaviors by a system of perceived give backs and be. Social exchange theory arose out of utilitarian ideas, emphasizing how people are actuate to act in relationships by maximizing their perceived rewards and minimizing their perceived hails. A reward is anything perceived as a benefit to an individual, family, or comparative unit bell are anything perceived as a reward forgone. Social exchange theory asserts that people rationally calculate temporary hookup assessing decisions based on the kale ratio of cost and rewards (White Kline, 2002). Theorist such as Homans (1961) believed in understandd rewards that virtually people would adhere to he suggested social approval as the main generalized reward and inducing for humans. Other theorists have proposed generalized rewards such as love, personal attraction, subservient services, respect, and power (Blau, 1964), status, services, goods, information, and money (Foa Foa, 1980), autonomy, predictability, security, agreement, and equality of resources (Nye, 1979).Thus, a researcher would assume that a family would rationally calculate about why they decide to stay in a rural environment in poverty when there may be other alternatives. The researcher would want to understand how families situations may apply to the described rewards or costs above. The other alternatives for families must also be understood. The value and meaning of living in a rural community must be elucidated thus, ideas related to symbolic interaction would also be employed to parent understanding. On one hand, families choice to live in a rural environment may have higher benefits compared to the costs of living in an urban environment. We must understand what the costs mean to families. The benefits and costs may relate to rural living sentiments (Elder Conger, 2000). Rural families may view a huge cost associated with moving and starting over in a new community. A benefit for staying would be familiarity, peradventure a connection to the land, and social supports in the community (Elder Conger, 2000). However, a cost of living in the rural environment may be shivering work and lack of job opportunities. We might also want to consider why poor young adults would choose to stay in the rural community versus leaving the rural community. The researcher would want to understand the costs and benefits of things associated with leaving and going. What are the social stigmas associated with staying or leaving? What job opportunities, educational attainment, marriage choices, and lifestyle choices exist relative to l eaving or staying? We would also want to clearly understand the comparison levels of alternatives for the families in poverty. If they see limited job opportunities in new areas, the comparison level is low and they go out not be motivated to move. This may be the case for young adults as well, if they view the comparison level of alternatives as low they will likely stay where they are. However, if the comparison level of alternatives is high, they will likely move and change their situation (White Kline, 2002). Homans (1961) also thought people gravitate toward social equals as people can gain more social approval this way, what he labeled the cost of inferiority. This may help explain why certain parts of a town remain more poverty stricken as people with similar social and human jacket crown gravitate toward one another. It might also be important to understand how this has worked out in community life in a rural environment.The researchers may also want to understand these c hoices at a larger macro level. In this view, parents, schools, and government make investments in the human and social capital of families and children (Haveman Wolfe, 1994 Strauss). Thus, the researcher may meet with community leaders to understand how they are investing in poor families and youth to understand their cost to benefit ratio. Do they see investments in the social mobility of families as reaping long term benefits that outweigh the social problems related to poverty?Regarding specific research questions, we would want to ask specifically what the advantages of staying in the rural community are. What are the costs of leaving and what are the costs of staying? We would want to clearly understand the meaning of the costs and rewards through in depth qualitative interviews. What does rural living mean to them? These would be similar questions also relevant to the symbolic interaction questions. What symbols are associated with moving and how does this lead to views rel ated to costs or rewards? Why do families live in certain areas of the community? What are the cost and benefits to community leaders of helping poor families with social mobility? relate to the two theoretical perspectives, the types of data the researcher collects would also be important. Associated to symbolic interaction we would want to do in depth observations in the community trying to understand the different symbols related to statuses and families in the community. This would require observations at several institutions the researchers would meet with people from all different power statuses within the community. We would hopefully gain access to the private life of several families where perhaps less filtering is done (Goffman, 1963). We may ask many clarifying questions related to the symbols and reflect on our own biases about these symbols. We would want to look for places within the community and related to different families where these symbols matched or had discrep ancies. Related to social exchange theory, we would likely gain the most information from the in-depth interviews with families and young adults understanding the circumstantial costs and benefits these families associate with their lives. Our work with symbolic interaction theory would most likely enhance our understanding of the benefits and rewards related to these families as they reflect on why they stay or go. Data should also be self-contained on community leaders regarding their views of the costs and benefits related to assisting poor families in their community.LimitationsThe suggested theories may lead the researcher to many interesting questions and data accruement efforts, however, the suggested theories also pose several limitations. Social exchange theory for instance is a bit behaviorist, implying all human interaction is a reception to a benefit/cost ratio. Researchers must account for the symbols related to rewards and costs as rewards may be unseen and not unde rstood by others. A closed system of understanding rewards may be found in several communities (Acock). Clearly defining rewards and costs would be an important first step before asserting research entirely from a social exchange theorists view point. Clearly, this is an area where symbolic interaction could enhance social exchange theory.Furthermore, asserting that humans always act rationally may be an overstatement. Social exchange theory may also not account for individuals of younger ages who have not fully certain their ability to calculate rationally. Social exchange theory also asserts that individuals are motivated by their own self-interests, some theorists have allowed for people to act in the best interest of their families but clearly understanding the mechanisms of how an individuals desires transform into the familys self-interest may pose a hardship in research (White Kline, 2002). Understanding these explicit processes is an area for future research. Additionally, decisions based on the profit/cost ratio may be made sub-consciously and bringing this subconscious mind information into the forefront of research may also pose challenges. However, it is important to examine the cost and rewards associated with why people choose to stay in or leave rural communities as these reasons are critical for the economic vitality and in understanding how to encourage others to move or stay within their community. Understanding these motivations for young adults and youth who will be the face of rural communities in the future is especially important. Understanding the exchanges for families in poverty is also important to ascertain mechanisms that may help their social mobility.Symbolic interaction may also pose limitations in this study. Symbolic interaction does not deal very well with how people handle emotions (White Kline, 2002). When spirit at coping in poverty, emotions certainly play a large role in how families deal with their situation. Furth ermore, this type of research is hard to generalize to other communities or cultures as the symbols used are likely unaccompanied highly relevant to the community being researched. Symbolic interaction also emphasizes the importance of meaning to individuals how the individual views others, is viewed by others, and behaves related to meaning. As this research is specifically studying families, it may be hard to keep the unit of analysis as a family group. Symbolic interaction tends to view the family as a collection of individuals. This may or may not pose issues with the research depending on the unit of analysis of interest.

Saturday, March 30, 2019

Business Start Up in Dubai

Business Start Up in DubaiDubai internet metropolisIntroductionWhy opt for Dubai net cityKey Benefits of Dubai lucre CityExpense of starting the furrow in DubaiIndustry likelyQuickest developing ICT Regions in the globeWebsites usedIntroductionDubai Internet City (DIC) is the ICT centre point in the Middle East as well as Northern Africa. From the beginning of the year 2000, DIC was able to effectively create a flourishing biological system for engineering associations and was a kind of the heralds in taking the vision of Dubai for switching into a learning-based market. DIC is a hub to Fortune 500 organizations and MNCs, together with worldwide names, for example, Facebook along with Linkedin, and to boot a percentage of the districts largely dynamic and fruitful engineering SMEs and new companies as of all components of the ICT quality chain.DIC gives access to a further reaching multi-lingual superpower group with an assortment of aptitudes and engineering skill. It gives c olossal offices including condition of-the- moldmanship business locales, a vigorous IT framework, 24-hour protection, retail administrations and lodgings, extended over the business parks arouse and peaceful countryside an atmosphere that assists ICT organizations create, advance and develop.DIC has observed a strong drill to help and support business visionaries, new companies and SMEs by the production of the In5 advancement centre and First Steps business place. In5 plans to encourage and advance business enterprise and development keeping in mind the end polish to further create the innovation commence biological community in Dubai, giving base, right to use the financing, plus a self-motivated and captivating work space to industrialists.Why opt for Dubai Internet cityDIC gives a far reaching biological system, base, and atmosphere for organizations who desire to start their ICT industry in the UAE. DIC presents a one-stop shop agreement, offering Business Partners the opt ion to concentrate on their central actions including organization consolidation, exchange permit, licences to trade and visa administrations.One-Shop Stop rapid Registration procedureBusiness integrationLicense to sellvisa provisionsTelecom and Internet provisionsData Services endowment administrationFitness, defence and security ServicesOrganizations placed at DIC additionally appreciate an assemblage of free zone advantages together with 100% possession, nobody of business and individual income taxes or custom duties, and liberated repatriation of funds and dinero in any exchange notes. Organizations laid down in DIC love in an atmosphere that draws in distinctive components of the essence chain from Banking and investment, Insurance, IT, rightful(a) to Airways and generosity sectors.Key Benefits of Dubai Internet City100 % exclusion from individual salary charge (income tax) for a long time i.e. 50 age100 % exclusion from corporate assessments for a long time i.e. 50 years 100 % overseas proprietorship100 % repatriation of earnings subway system Ethernet atmosphereSelf-motivated universal groupProspects for business collaboration and expansion of miserlinessProspects for channel and business improvementCommunications framework focused just about cutting edge innovationsDigital voice and quick data function presented at reasonable expensesWebsites usedhttp//www.dubaiinternetcity.com/http//www.dubai.ae/en/Lists/Articles/DispForm.aspx?ID=109category=Businesseswww.tecom.ae/portfolio/business-parks/dubai-internet-city/

The Report Of Hots Simulation Tourism Essay

The narration Of Hots Simulation Tourism EssayThe main purpose of this extend was to micturate a market place strategy to change magnitude the profit of the hotel. The hotel faced al almost difficulties with their operation and caution. In roam to remedy those problems, the merchandising plan mandatory to be identified and some market strategies should be conjecture. The report comprised the selling strategical plan for five social classs, which had been formd after jam compend. harmonise to the strategies, the marketing plan had be designed an consummation plan which would specify activities use to strain the goals of ecesis. Through identifying and analyzing marketing strategic plan, the hotel could overcome their difficulties to a greater extent smoothly.2.0 insane asylum2.1 Company BackgroundThe traditional hotel was built in the 1950s and fit(p) on the seafront in a town, close to different hotels and a bypass distance from the main obtain centre an d the nearest airport. There were considerably road, rail and bus links to major cities and other resorts. The hotel had 250 guest cortege with large, comfortable and vary in decorative sort and standard. The hotel as well as provided some(prenominal) vacuous facilities, 24 hours front desk, car parking. However, the profession experienced its reducing stage by its inappropriate marketing strategy. Moreover, the business was greatly modify by warlike milieu and broad(prenominal) overthrow rate of employee.2.2 contender InformationThere were terce direct competitions existing in this flying field and competing for the same market. The knock back 2-1 showed the information below. table 2-1 General hotel informationHotel supporter RatingRoomsServiceOur HotelN iodine250A unspoilt dish up restaurantPub bar with snack serviceA subtile swimming pool political machine parkingThe palace Hotel4 paladin150 la carte eating place and Coffee Shop both barsHealth ClubConfere nce and Business BureauCar place to rearThe Park Hotel3 Star200RestaurantBarSm all told told Health ClubConference Facilities and Business serviceAmple Car ParkingThe Mariner2 Star70RestaurantBarTwo Conference RoomsCar ParkingSource HOTS background documentTable 2-2 harm informationThe Palace HotelThe Park HotelThe MarinerWeekday Room Price125.0089.0069.50Weekend Room Price90.0042.5065.00Lunch Price33.0025.0019.75Dinner Price59.7543.5036.75Tours Price67.50/ individual46.25/person41.50/personSource HOTS market researchThese properties provided similar facilities and service. Further more(prenominal), they also centre on business needs providing conference facilities, and incorporate more leisure facilities than our hotel provided.2.3 Aims and ObjectivesAim The aim of this report was to decoct the level of lag up dress circle and step-up the receipts of hotel.ObjectivesTo identify current climbes to reduce stave turnover.To countersink marketing strategy to increase hotel direct marginsTo make conclusions and recommendations for further operation.3.0 strategical Planning ProcessOlsen (2007) mentioned that in order to create company strategic plan, it was necessary to go through the strategic cookery put to work, including several of the essence(p) steps and activities. Although each company had different situation and challenge, strategic proviso mode was appropriate to deal with complex work including forecasting and schedule (Wheelen and Hunger, 2006). According to the book of Marketing Management, it provided a strategic homework process which consists of several steps much(prenominal) as SWOT out line of descent, goal and strategy, plan formulation and feedback and say-so, respectively (Kotler and Keller, 2009). A simplified view of the strategic planning process was shown by the following figure pick up 2-1 Strategic planning process within a business unitSource adequate from Kotler and Keller (2009)3.1 SWOT AnalysisAccording to the strategic planning process, in order to analyze the hotel purlieu, SWOT analysis should be adopted in this report. Glaister and Falshaw (1999) mentioned that SWOT analysis has been ranked as the most frequently used approach for analyzing the environment. The value of SWOT analysis has been promoted because of its authority in identifying the main problems concerning the organization and the simplicity of its execution (Hill and Westbrook, 1997). The main purpose of implementing a SWOT analysis was unremarkably to call a strategic direction for organization practices (Pickton and Wright, 1998). Moreover, Dyson (2004) claimed that the expertness of SWOT analysis to integrate interior and external environments of an organization allows competitive strategy formulation more easily. Other benefits of SWOT analysis take its ability to organize information, enhance a managers understanding of the business and factors poignant its performance, and mitigate strategic plans for the business (Pickton and Wright, 1998). The following analysis exhibit the internal strengths and weaknesses of the hotel and the opportunities and threats facing the organization in the external environment.Table 3-1 SWOT analysisStrengthWeaknessA short distance from the main shopping centre.The fashions are large, comfortable and vary in decorative style and standard.Near airport.Good road, rail and bus links to major cities and other resorts.Good conditions on refurbishment of lives.Enclosed garden with a crushed swimming pool.Old building.No Leisure Facilities, Business Services, Conference Facilities or Meeting Rooms.Not have a star rating or AA Diamond rating.Serious staff turnover problem.OpportunityThreatThe topical anaesthetic authority distinguishable to offer economic re localisation package to petty and medium size firms.The resort had become a popular berth for conferences.Different kinds of popular festivals and well established tourist events were often held in t he town.Convenient transportations.Too galore(postnominal) hotels entered this market.Source HOTS background document3.2 The finis of Hotel after(prenominal) environment analysis, the hotels goals were set up.Short-Term GoalsTo reduce staff turnover rate.To increase customer satisfaction.To achieve write vanquish overall costs than rivals.To increase prevalent sensory faculty by ad.To change the advertising strategies according to the environment changes.Long-Term GoalsTo achieve a bigger market share.To achieve discredit costs relative to competitors.To achieve a stronger reputation with customers than rivals.To increase hotel operating margins.To improve the quality of hotel facilities by doing refurbishments.To improve the quality of staff operate by providing develop programs.Intended Strategy SelectionBecause of competitive environment in this area, the hotel should consider strategies for gaining a competitive avail. This section was going to diagnose several stra tegies for the hotel to achieve its aim and goals.4.1 Competitive AdvantageDue to the high expenditure of hotel, it should apply Porters generic strategy theory. Porter argued that core capabilities and intangible asset resources could formulate exhilarating competitive advantage for companies (Poter, 1980). Hofer and Schendel (1978) suggested that at the business level, the most vital component of strategy was competitive advantage, which was dened as the incomparable positions an organization develops vis-a-vis its competitors through its pattern of resource deployment and decisions of scope. Porter introduced three types of generic strategy for creating a defensible position and outperforming competitors in a given industry, include overall cost leadership, dierentiation, and focus. After SWOT analysis and competition information, the hotel should eectively utilize overall cost leadership to create defensible positions against other competitor forces. A cost-leadership strateg y could offer the hotel above-average returns because it enables firms to lower prices to match or beat their rivals and belt up earn profits (Philips, Chang and Buzzell, 1983). Moreover, from the spatial relation of customers, a cost-based marketing strategy was efficacious because lower price offerings ingathering to customers in competitive environment (Li and Li, 2008). Through the influence on a hotels competitive advantage, it could allow hotel to reach its goals (Amit, 2006).4.2 PromotionBut, how do customers choose the hotel? It was non enough for the hotel to have good products sold at attractive prices. To throw sales and profits, the advantages of products had to be communicated to customers (Sunday and Bayode, 2011). In marketing, this was comm simply known as progression. Utilizing all possible tools for promoting the product and service was known as its promotion mix. priggish implement of promotional mix could increase the market share and improve organisation growth in the face of strong competition. (Sunday and Bayode, 2011) also claimed that the promotion mixes had a stage at which it would be most effective and advertising as well as publicity were usually suitable for all stages. Considering customer requirement in different quarter, advertising and publicity were usually adopted. Through market research, the information regarding seasonal demand and advertising effectiveness were obtained. The advertising campaign was changed which was based on these two pieces of information. When there were high requirements on a particular item, the campaign would be focused on this particular item in order to draw more public awareness since there were several choices existed in the market. For instance, conference business, meal and pot spirits would be the hotel main advertisements during from Quarter 1 to Quarter 1 since it was one of the peak periods for business traveler (Figure 4-1).Figure 4-1 The hotel advertising decisionsSource fit f rom HOTS exemplar4.3 Internal MarketingHigh employee turnover was one of the most serious phenomena in the hotel. Arnett, Laverie and McLane (2002) pointed out that successful internal marketing strategy could lead to main(prenominal) payoffs for an organization. The value of internal marketing stem included low employee turnover rates, an increase in service quality, and high levels of employee satisfaction. The reduction in employee turnover could reduce the cost of recruiting and formulation and increase their level of channel satisfaction. Furthermore, it also could increase employee satisfaction and motivate staffs to be more engaged and, as a get out, they were more likely to take actions that result in improved customer satisfaction and hotel profitability.4.4 Employee TrainingEmployee training also could improve this problem and provide other benefits. The positive relationship among employee training, job satisfaction and intention to stay had been established (Conrad e and Woods, 1994 Heskett et al., 1994 Roehl and Swerdlow, 1999). Training had been linked to improve self-esteem, reduce turnover, better product and service consistency, higher satisfaction of customer, reduce cost of business, and greater job satisfaction (Roehl and Swerdlow, 1999). Through employee training, the hotel could not only build customer satisfaction and loyalty, entirely increase the impact on profitability and growth, which was created by satisfied, loyal, and productive employees (Chiang, Back and Canter, 2005).4.5 Balance visiting card sure-fire performance resulted from goals achievement and strategy carrying out (Wu and Hung, 2008). However, the main weaknesses of strategic caution practice were usually associated with the stage of implementation. Actually, Mintzberg (1994) asserted that more than half of the strategies formulated by organizations were never actually implemented. Therefore, successful strategy implementation was not only dependent on effectiv e strategy, but also management as well as control system of ruless. Without control systems it was argued strategy implementation would not be implemented successfully. It had been suggested that the framework of performance management much(prenominal) as the fit Scorecard could, by forming the basis of strategic control systems and offering an important link between strategy and action, assist companies to accomplish effective strategic implementation.The Balanced Scorecard took into consideration the vision and strategies of company, snap on both nancial and non-nancial performance. It monitored short-term nancial performance while also play up the benefit of long-term nancial metrics and competitiveness (Kaplan and Norton, 1992, 1996, 2001).This strategic control system ensured that the hotel effort put into preparing lengthy and detailed strategic plans was completely translated into action (Bungay and Goold, 1991). The scorecard measured firm performance across four mat ch perspectives financial, customers, internal business processes, and learning and growth (Atkinson, 2006).Figure 4-2 The Balanced Scorecard four main perspectivesSource Adapted from Atkinson (2006)The Balanced Scorecard could offer specific targets so that the hotel could know what to do (Corboy and OCorrbui, 1999) could motivate down the line leadership (Beer and Eisenstat, 2000 Alexander, 1985) and could clarify strategic intent into clear managerial actions (Reed and Buckley, 1988). If the Balanced Scorecard was executed completely itself, it could implement management in an paygrade of the strategic strategy and thus avoid planning errors and prevent oversight.5.0 work Measures5.1 Financial PerformanceFirst of all, training cost was one of the important elements for the hotel bankrupt. A wrong decision was do as mentioned. High training cost had been spent in course of instruction 2 because employees always complained such as The training here is worse than the last place I worked. After increasing this cost, it did not take a turn for the better. Employees still unsatisfied and turnover rate were still high, so several weeks later, the hotel decided to increase the training spending per person, and this action conduct high expenditure. The full training spend was shown in Appendix 1. Second, advertising cost was a major expenditure in the hotel. A large amount of coin was put into sales and marketing for the purpose of advertising. In low seasons, a cost control was conducted strictly. A cheaper advertising media was preferred instead than scorecard advertisement in Sunday Newspaper. For example, Local Weekly Newspaper for liquor advertisements was selected as promotion medium during five stratums. During peak season, more coin was allocated in order to increase business traveler awareness. The most effective and efficient medium with higher costs would be chosen, such as Business Press for weekday and weekend room. Final, in the first week o f stratum5, a negative net income was occurred. The hotel was almost broken and running out of interchange since conference facilities were conducted. A great amount of silver was put into this zeal (Appendix 2). This issue indicated cost control was not well in the hotel.According to the balance sheets of 5 eld, a total current liability fluctuated significantly, but the total asset and the owners fair play of the hotel fall steadily from year1 to year5. The table of those items was shown down belowTable 5-1 yearbook balance sheet category 1 category 2Year 3Year 4Year 5 resume asset3,611,4713,125,1942,568,5021,883,0811,011,426Total current liabilities85,464106,92984,000104,69364,390Total owners equity3,526,0073,018,2652,484,5021,778,388947,036Source Adapted from HOTS fashion model reportThe Table 5-2 and Figure 5-1 showed that the revenue was declining from year 1 to year 5. It was because after the hotel spent lots of money in the hotel rooms, facilities and promotion to ols, customers still unsatisfied the service and usually unheeded it. It was hard for the hotel to build up customer loyalty and receive more revenue.Table 5-2 Annual total revenueYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Total Revenue1,839,5801,238,8931,097,280949,309910,448Source Adapted from HOTS simulation reportFigure 5-1 Annual revenue and profitSource Adapted from HOTS simulation reportFor net income, due to the increase in cost of sales, marketing, net income was decreased from year 1 to year 5. Moreover, the hotel had built many facilities to fulfill the market demands, a great amount of maintenance fees occurred. It caused a decrease in the hotel net income. It also conveyed that the hotel did not perform as well as previous, the profitability was decreasing.Table 5-3 Annual net incomeYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Net Income341,988-507,742-487,182-706,114-831,352Source Adapted from HOTS simulation reportIn the historic 2 years, total room revenue was increase by 189,910 from year 1 to year 2. It indicated that the hotel could attract more customers successfully. However, between year 3 and year 5 the revenue was decreased (Table 5-4). It conveyed that there were several problems existed such as customer had walked past it but they had never noticed it.Table 5-4 Annual room revenueYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Total Rooms Revenue463,547653,457595,299543,476523,456Source Adapted from HOTS simulation reportFB subdivision was the second largest revenue generator. It contributed almost 50% of total revenue of the hotel from year 1 to year 5. The table demonstrated a big increase from year 1 to year 2 as cost leadership strategy was adopted in year 1. However, in the following 3 year, no new strategies were applied and FB department revenue was decreased continually as the same as room department revenue (Table 5-5).Table 5-5 Annual food and beverage revenueYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Total Food and Beverage Revenue349,009542,118459,638365,980348,745Source Adapte d from HOTS simulation reportAs the Table 5-6 showed, tenancy rate was increased steadily from year 1 to year 5. The military control rate was only increased by 11% from year 1 to year 2. Besides, average room rate was decreased slowly from year 1 to year 5 since environment became more competitive. In order to compete with our competitors and increase occupancy rate, declining room rate was a must. Moreover, REVPAR had also increased slowly from 15.9 to 17.9, and the main reason was the effect of the competitive environment. What the hotel could do was to adjust the average room rate in order to control the hotel business.Table 5-6 Annual occupancy rate, average room rate and REVPARYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5 business rate27.1%38.2%37.0%34.5%32.7%Average Room Rate58.7658.7455.3154.1654.82REVPAR15.922.420.418.717.9Source Adapted from HOTS simulation report5.2 None-Financial PerformanceTraining was an important section in the hotel operation. Decisions were made according to diff erent periods and market needs to allocate the numbers of staff in each department. And the range between the increase or decrease number of employee was 3. To the payroll of the employee, except the department heads were bulls eye 2 payments, the others were set as Brand 1. And this strategy was used from the first year to the ordinal year. However, in week 62, all Brand 1 payments were changed in to Brand 2 in order to increase the employee satisfaction and reduce staff turnover. Training affected the employee quality in terms of the input of the training cost. Overall the five years operation time, training cost unbroken increasing each year. The hotel wanted to provide excellent service to their customer by increasing the staff quality. Better qualities of staff and service leaded to have positive feedbacks from hotel customers such like Service could not be improved much. Therefore, more positive feedbacks leaded to greater market awareness and share (Appendix 3).The hotel h ad serious staff turnover problems in several years and received not good comments from the customers such as You never watch over the same member of staff twice. However, after the hotel implemented the internal marketing and training, the staff turnover rate decreased significantly from 123.8% to 54.2% (Table 5-7).Table 5-7 Annual staff turnover rateYear 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5 supply Turnover123.8%65.0%76.5%118.2%54.2%Source Adapted from HOTS simulation report6.0 Conclusion and RecommendationsAfter spending 5 years to run the hotel, it was realized that there were many unpredictable incidents coming up, the management- group lacked flexible response to the upcoming challenges. Although the hotel finally bankrupted, the statistics demonstrated that the strategies had ever helped the hotel performance well in Year 2 and make profit. The hotel market share also increased during a five-year period. Moreover, the management team solved the problem of employee turnover by increasin g the training expenditure and salary. For future action, it suggested that due to the town had become a popular location for conferences, conference room should be built at first rather than the last year. This strategy could attract more businessmen and increased hotel competitiveness in this area. Furthermore, building conference room also had another advantage for the hotel, which provided extra facilities for customers to increase their satisfaction.

Friday, March 29, 2019

Forensic Science Work Placement Personal Development Essay

Forensic Science Work Placement Personal discipline EssayThe judicature I was introduced to for my forge configurationment was the de break downment of rhetorical science. Forensic science usu aloney goes hand in hand with Law. It supererogatoryises in the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of matter to to legal systems. This whitethorn be in relation to hatred, burglary or murder investigation. Simply project it usu bothy involves the use of scientific techniques to retrieve crucial adult males of evidence which may be of utmost importance to an ongoing police investigation or judiciary in fiber.The De break-dancement of Forensic Science where I sniped during my spotlightment was primed(p) in the green field of the Erasmus Darwin Building on the Clifton campus. Over the away few years the incline itself has drive quiet popular so much so that it now non altogether attracts students from crossways the linked Kingdom provided fro m either oer the world too. The activities that are certain by the de eccentricment are a combination of functional(a) examples as tumesce as theory in coif for the students to understand just ab bug out of the certain plans that are multiform in this objet darticular field of science. On flower of this the department works closely together with the nottingham police. This is a huge advantage for the students as it en fits them to get first hand in imageation of how to go most certain methods when it comes to retrieving evidence.During my time in the forensic department I was working alongside senior technician Arthur Ric knottys who was my executive program and Paul Mason-Smith who was carewise part of the forensic technician group. The roles that we carried out ranged from primpting up lab matter-of-facts to setting up different offensive per influenceance scenarios for the students to tackle in the crime jibe kinfolk. somewhat of the things bingle neede d in recite to get the jobs do were a good sense of communication and the ability to work as part of a larger group. Some of the tasks that I carried out individually during my work carapacement were things such(prenominal)(prenominal) as solicitation together the equipment that would be utilise in the lab operables, charging the camera batteries as well as solicitation new equipment from the downstairs store, organising them in society of their usefulness and storing them away in a sui add-in office. Other aspects of my tasks did not require setting up unimaginatives or coming up with scenarios but rather to attend negotiation that were foc using on the health and prophylactic viewpoints of the workplace. These talks placed a fundamental part of the placements as they showed the problems that could arise if one was not paying particular attention to the way they were carrying out their tasks. The in earnation obtained from talks such as this one proved to be very useful during the placements. Not only did they enable my to mind my surroundings spot executing my work but they also taught me how to optimise my working capacity by using a few unbiased examples that were provided during the talk.Skills and knowledge gainedThe tasks that I was under victorious all over the 5 calendar weeks of the work placement not only helped tremendously in further developing my unimaginative skills, but they also help approach pattern the make attributes that one needs in order to succeed in some(prenominal) workplace. In my particular workplace the skills that were required from me in order to work efficiently were a good sense of communication, aggroupwork and organisation skills. as luck would have it for me, these were some of my better skills.During my time in the forensics department I also gained exceptional knowledge about some of the techniques that were involved in crime solving. During my placement I carried out two major realistics. One of t he techniques that I re fragment carrying out was The Footwear and Tool commemorate Impression practical. This practical comprised of a sequence of 4 activities which together were intended to provide one with the opportunity to enhance their skills in examining official document distinguish evidence and collecting footgear evidence as well as nameing the characteristics of footgear restore patterns. Tool mark impressions are usually the mark that are left over(p)(a)(p) behind during a burglary. Lets take a phratry for example. If the point of submission is a locked door, the singular would most definitely use some pleasant of machine to force entry to the premises. The imprint that is left behind in the door is the mark. The role of a forensic scientist is to notice out what tool is compatible with the tool mark that was left on the door. The selfsame(prenominal) concept applies to the footwear impression which will be left behind in the house. nonetheless if the footwear that is left behind is not visible to the naked as a jaybird eye there are certain techniques and equipment that are employ in order to contain these imprints visible. These as yet will be explained at a later stage.Upon successful completion of the practical one couldDemonstrate the efficacy in ditching footprint impressionsShow the ability to use of Electro-static lifting apparatusCorrectly put fix pattern characteristicsCorrectly eliminate sole print using inkless padSafely prepare atomic number 14 estimate of tool mark impressionApply theory of identification of impressions to practical scenario.Before the students could tackle the exercise I had to run through the practical in order to see whether everything the practical was going to work without whatsoever(prenominal) faults. Before the going through the practical and we had to create a suitable scenario that fitted with the practical. The scenario my supervisor and I came up with was as follows hatred pattern NTU/221208Location 10 College Drive, CliftonMr. Richard SoleBurglary at the above address long break entry gained via rear lounge window. Window forced using instruments. Climb in steal laptop and mobile p hone. Exist as entry. There is footwear mark in flower bed under window and tool marks t pic.2 comicals have been arrested and tools healed from them. Their footwear has also been recovered for further examination.Once the scenario was in place my supervisor and I started the practical. The first act was the clay sculpture of a footwear mark in damp sand. This instinctive action was through as a team. It involved written reporting the mark which was mentioned in the crime report with appropriate labelling. later this, the mark that was visible was coded using the letter coding system. This was incumbent in order to key the type of horseshoe that left behind the imprint.When the results of the mark came back from the letter coding system we brisk to cast aw ay the mark. For this we set casting frame around the mark and embedded it into the sand to balk seepage of the plaster. This part had to be done as a team in order to ensure that the cast did not damage the mark and that the cast was correctly distributed. To cast the mark I had toTake three-fold bagged 2kg crownstone plaster and add 500mls of tease water to the bag, massage it well ensuring that the top of the bag rebrinyed closed. Add further water as necessary complaint in mind that the i transmit consistency is runny (like pouring cream) without lumps.When the diverseness is well mixed, snip off the corner at the bottom of the bad and using trawler pour plaster mix over the cast. During this whole tone my supervisor pointed out that the mixture was not to be pour instantaneously into the cast as this would destroy fine detail.Using the trowler gently tap the surface of mixture to ensure plaster settles into all of the impression and all air pockets are released. after (prenominal) 5 minutes using a craft knife inscribe suitable detail into the cast. This was not necessary in my case as I was just running the practical in order to see whether everything was going as intended however once the students started to do this natural action they would have to inscribe their initials into the cast so they could distinguish between their casts. After the inscriptions the cast was left to take form for 45 minutes.Once the cast was juiceless I carefully tapped the edges of the casting frame to loosen and remove it. Then gently lifting the cast and retentiveness it over the tray brush off excess rubble with brush so the details of the tread can be seen. At this point the cast was finished.I was told by a police officer how worked with us during the practical that in a unfeigned liveness crime convulsion the cast would not be cleaned. The cast plus soil would have been allowed to dry for at least 48 hours before they would be packaged and grade intact to forensic scientist laboratory to be examined. The soil or debris attached to the cast may hold a small alternate of evidence which could be crucial in solving a case or in the case of the above bodily process identifying the correct distrust which left the imprint behind during the burglary incident. The skills and knowledge that I took away from this application was to pay attention to small details such as these which could unfeignedly make a difference when it comes to solving a crime.The second activity was the Electro-Static Lifting Apparatus. This device is much commonly referred to as ESLA. ESLA consists of a high emf power supply/ cover unit, a nickel-plated steel ground horizontal and a metalised lifting medium. It is utilise to lift impressions in propagate from nearly either surface. It uses static electricity to attract the dust particles from the surface to a dark-colored lifting film, allowing for a clear and accurate photograph of the print. A grounding wire attaches to a grounded metal surface and a live wire attaches to a special golden film. The unit is then activated. The film is statically attracted to the surface and dust particles are attracted to the black side of the film. A roller is provided to smooth the film over the surface. A flashlight is provided as an oblique light source to ascertain and photograph dust marks. This number ultimately produces the desired image which in my case was the footwear imprint. The activity was again carried out as a team however since this activity included the use of high electromotive force was done as a group of three to ensure that everything was guardedly done.The objective of this activity was to visualise a footwear print which was left behind on a clean surface using the dust particles that remained on the ground. The force went as followedUsing the crime light 80L ( a LED line light which is used for locating evidence such as fibers, hair or footwear prints in a crime scen e) at a low angle we had to locate the area of shoe dust print to flooring sample.Using the Projectina Dustprint lifter my supervisor bring up the dustprint markFollowing this I turned on ESLA and let the real run over the metal rag which was covering the of the shoe dustprint.After approximately 30 seconds ESLA was turned off to lift over the foil and using the crime light 80L I visualised the left to go through whether the electrostatic attraction displace the dust particle together to form the footwear mark.After confirming that it did I had the some other colleague survey the resultant lift on the crime report.This delicate operation not only depended on precision but also the true. When the students carried out the activity, the sketch of the imprint was given a mark depending on the character reference and accuracy of the sketch so one had to take extra care when placing the metallic foil on the dustprint not to destroy the arrangement of the particles and also eye patch sketching the imprint.The third activity in the practical was the suspect shoe comparison. This activity differed from the other two I had done so far. Instead of retrieving footwear marks or dustprint marks my job was to examine 2 pairs of suspect shoes I received for comparison. After close examination I noted their code according to the FSS coding saddlerys. The FFS coding sheet holds the tuition of shoe types and patterns. Using the Bigfoot (a specialised set of equipment used to take footprints from shoes) I made a print of each shoe and labeled them befittingly then using a pen I had to highlight the areas of interest on the Bigfoot prints that were made. Finally I compared the Bigfoot prints against the Cast which we made during the first activity as well as the ESLA lift produced in the second activity to see whether any of the pairs were the ones which were found in the crime scene.I was told that in real life forensic scientists do this to point out the areas that overlapped with footwear evidence that was retrieved from the crime scene. Sometimes there are factors that help identify which shoe corresponded with the print that was left behind at the crime scene these include the size of the shoe. Some of the not so obvious features become to a greater extent apparent hobby the completion of the Bigfoot analysis. The analysis tells you a potbelly about the separate of person which wore the shoes for example worn out soles indicate that the person wearing the shoes must(prenominal) have done a lot of walking. Distorted sole patterns arise due to the load which is put on them. It is teensy clues such as these which narrow the number of suspects down.The final activity of this practical was the Tool Marks activity. What I had to do here was to examine the UPVC (a material used in manufacturing windows, gutters as well as doors) sections with the tool mark damage on them. Using silicon casting kit I made a cast of the marks and allowed the m to dry for approximately 15 minutes before removing the from the wood. Once the silicon cast had dried I took it and compared it to the tools which were recovered from the suspects to see if any of the tools matched the cast. To identify the features and pattern of the tool mark and the cast I used a magnifier. This delicate procedure required a lot of patience and a steady hand as it took a dapple until align the tools with the cast however once this was done I was able to confirm which tool was used to make the tool mark. The final stage of this activity was to sketch and label the tool that made the tool mark. The information gathered from the practical was tabulated and filed away. The tabulated results would then be used by the member of the teaching team to compare them against the results the students would gather. Following the completion of the practical I was asked by my supervisor to prepare a table of results using the computer. This table was to be used by the studen ts to fill in their obtained results. The table also included a set of question which they had to answer.During my second week in the placement I was introduced to the crime scene house which was also situated on Clifton campus. The Crime scene house had been established very recently as It was officially an accommodation for postgraduate. It was now being used as a sort of training facility that simulated real life situation. The houses propose was for the students to hone their investigation and retrieval skills as well as get used to the idea of operating in a real life surrounding. The house itself was equipped with CCTV cameras in order to monitor the students while they were carrying out dissimilar scenarios. The forensic science department worked closely together with the Nottinghamshire police as stated former. The benefits of this was of course the fact that students would get advice from experienced officers on how to deal with murder investigation, burglary cases and d rug searches.My role as an assistant technician was to prepare the house for the appropriate activity that was going to take place. The scenario that I was asked to set up was a Drug search activity which was scheduled to take place during the course of the week. I was working alongside my supervisor and a member of the Nottinghamshire police who told me that this activity was quiet complex in a real drug search. Sometimes the places the drugs were hidden were unimaginable thats why you had to think like a criminal in order to find them. For health and safety measures the items which were to be used for the exercise were not real drugs.Once the drugs were all placed away I went back to the offices and designed a table using Microsoft word which held the information of the different kinds of drugs and equipment that were used and the precise location they had been placed in the crime scene house. This was done in order to keep track of the items the students retrieved and to remember which items had been placed where in the house.On the following day while the students were undertaking the Drug search activity my supervisor and I went into the CCTV room in order to monitor the students progress. My supervisor inform me with the operating system and the different functions that were necessary in order to control each CCTV individually. After I was comfortable with operating the CCTVs I was left with the task of monitoring the actions of the students as they were doing the activity. During this I had to note down any action which went against the code of conduct they had been taught during their lectures. When entering a crime scene it is of utmost importance that one wears the appropriate equipment such as a protective suite which covers you from head to toe, gloves and a mask. This is to stop you from covering the scene with your reproduces, hair strains or saliva traces. Some of the students made mistakes such as the ones mentioned and it was precisely these acts that I had to write done in the log book. dapple I was watching I noticed that some of the students were retrieving the items quicker but in turn they did not find all of them. The items they did not find or rather overlooked were the items which I placed in the more obvious locations such as under the carpet. The others were retrieving the items at a long-play pace however they managed to find all of them. This highlighted the fact that patience rightfully was a virtue. After they had retrieved everything the unknown samples of drugs were brought back to the lab for testing.The other activity which took place in the crime scene house towards the end of the week was the murder scene activity. The preparation of this activity involved using life size dummies which looked shockingly real. Depending on the scenario the dummy was either male or female. The dummy we used that week was the male dummy which had cut wrists as well as a slit throat. It was placed in the double bed room. During this activity the students had to examine the room the victim was found in for fibre traces, footwear and any DNA traces. Once the room was adequately searched the students would go back to the lab to observe one of the members of staff demonstrating how to powerful post a corpse. During the demonstration it became apparent to a lot of students including myself that the transport of a corpse from a crime scene was not as straight forward as it seemed. Before the corpse was put in a body bag the limbs had to be wrapped in forensic evidence bags as they may hold crucial pieces of evidence which could be uncovered during the autopsies which take place in the forensic labs.I mentioned earlier that as part of being an assistant technician I had to take place in a Health and safety talk in order to familiarise myself with the daily hazards which encompassed the workplaces. The talk raised some interesting points of about the dangers of carelessness during work or how the ar rangements of items could cause serious problems during evacuation. The talks main focus was about maintaining a good workplace at all times. It showed how one could increase their work efficiency by rearranging their desk, prioritising the items they need in order of their usefulness at the time. The talk went on to explain the compulsion of taking short breaks when working on the computer. The breaks would allow you to take your regard away from the monitor thus easing the strain on your eyes. A general rule of thumb is to look into the distance as this relaxes your ciliary muscles. Moving about during these small breaks is also very useful as it gives you the chance to get up from your chair and stretch your muscles. These few simple roles proved to be a very useful set of skills stock-still now as Im writing this report.Throughout the practicals and scenarios that my supervisor, colleague and I did, I felt that our teamwork and communication kept improving to the point were it was almost flawless. This in turn greatly enhanced the rate of completing various tasks and practicals as there was less mistakes. After a while I was flat off able to help the students with minor technical difficulties of the camera equipment.The other major practical that I prepared and tested was the Inked Fingerprint practical. Fingerprints are interpreted for several reasonablenesss some of them areTo establish an individuals identity.To find out whether soulfulness has a criminal record.In the case of migration the home office takes reproduces to identify whether a person is illegal in the country.To clear a suspect of committing a crime.Using fingerprints as evidence in a court case.The Police use them to find out whether an individual has had any prior convictions.This practical also involved several different stages which when tied together provided me with the chance to develop an understanding of the range of fingerprint pattern types. too while doing this prac tical my supervisor introduced me to the procedure that is involved in taking fingerprints from actual crime suspects. Once I had completed this exercise I understood the nature of fingerprint characteristics and I was able to handle fingerprint equipment as well as taking fingerprints from individuals. Before starting the procedure however I was made aware of the health and safety aspects of this practical. Even though the risks that encompassed were minimal I had to wear a lab come out to ensure that no ink came in contact with my clothing. The first part of the practical required teamwork as such I worked with my supervisor. This part of the practical divided the groups into two roles. One person had to supervise and take the prints whereas the other had to assume the role of the suspect who was having their fingerprints taken. For the sake of understanding the practical I assumed the role of supervision. The materials that were used includedNational arrest formFingerprint inkCo pper plateInk roller badger form carrierPalm rollerWipesA4 stemMagnifying glassID sheetLinen testerRussell ComparatorIn order for obtaining the best possible prints I had to ensure that my hands were thoroughly washed, dried and free from perspiration, the ink plate was clean and inked appropriately and my wrists and fingers were relaxed making sure not to assists the prints by adding mash to the plate as this only leads to inaccuracy. Once the precautions were set we went into the preparation procedure which was as followedComplete the details on the formFold the piece of music along the lines indicatedPlace the form under the fingerprint card in such a way that it leaves the right hand impression visible. cover 8 to 12 equally spaced out dots of ink on the plate. Once this has been done roll the ink out evenly until it has a semi mat finish.Take a test impression on the plain A4 paper. If too much ink is used on the paper clogging will form between the ridges if however too p icayune is used the ridges will appear grey.The aim in each case was to produce a fingerprint which had sharp black ridges and white interspaces.The dodge of removing excess ink from the plate was to lay a blank piece of paper over it and pass the roller over it until the plate had an even layer of ink.As part of the health and safety precautions I had to act in mind to check for cuts, skin disease and the quality of the ridges. This was to make sure that the ink would go into the cuts and cause an infection or get to the skin. Once the practical had been set up we went through the practical as followedThe involute impressions were obtained by rolling the digit through 180 degrees from ace edge to nail edge in order for the complete area of rigid detail on the inner surface of the finger to be recorded. My supervisor indicated that it is recommended to do this slowly as it produces a better quality of fingerprint.Take the fingerprints starting with the right thumb and working y our way across the form, taking each finger in turn to the right petite finger making sure that the right digit appears in the suitable space.After completing the right hand adjust the fingerprint form in the holder in such a manner as to allow the left hand prints to be taken. Once it has been repositioned repeat the same steps with the left hand taking care to position the digits.The reason the plain impressions are taken before the rolled impressions is to certify that the rolled impressions have been taken in the correct manner on the fingerprint form. I was told that they may prove very useful to a fingerprint office therefore it is very important that they are recorded at bottom the area chosen for them and do not overlap onto other lines or printing. When these were taken I had to move the form down in the holder to expose the plain expression section. As soon as this is done I took each of the suspects hands and pressed all four fingers together onto the ink plate, lifted them off and onto the appropriate space and pressed all four fingers down together. After this I took them of and used the same procedure to get the thumb prints.The final part of the practical was to take the bay wreath prints. Using the ink roller I covered the whole address and finger surface of my supervisor with a coating of ink. Finally I had done this I placed the heel of the palm onto the paper and drew the hand back over the over the roller to the fingertips, exerting a little pressure. Once the practical was complete I put away the equipment and prepared the lab for research students that were working on a project that involved the use of cameras and 80L crime lights.I effected that throughout the placement my organisation and communication skills kept improving. Thanks to this it made me a more good person. The various tasks that were allocated to me by my supervisor reflected this. Being responsible for setting up practicals, backing up CCTV footage for later use and preparing equipment for research students has also increase my confidence of managing tasks by my self. The health and safety speech has also helped as it made me aware of the hazards that I used to ignore before.Personal growingHaving completed my placement at the forensic department I must say that this has been a priceless experience for me. The placement has not only given me an insight in the day to day activities that encompass a forensic scientist but it has also helped in further developing the key attributes and understandings that one needs in order to excel in any given workplace. I believe that the way I carried out the tasks that were charge to me had a direct influence on my personal development and of course vice versa. Judging by this I would like to think that I carried out my daily tasks and completed them to the best of my ability. My attitude also contributed to my development. primarily I was quiet content with my workplace. At the beginning it took a while to adjust to certain aspects of the placement such as timekeeping, sticking to the deadlines and schedules and behavior the responsibility of setting up practicals. These demands and responsibilities required that I had to learn quick and adapt in order to prevail in this workplace.I realised during the placement that one of my weaknesses was the accuracy and reliability of the practicals I had prepared. This is only natural as forensic science was not my area of expertise however since I applied for this placement it meant that I had to follow the same conduct and set up the practicals in the exact same manner as a forensic technician would do. My supervisor also gave me the advice of taking my time while setting up the practicals. In order to resolve this issue I paid particular attention to the other technicians while they were setting up practicals. As a result of this the reliability of my practicals improved immensely over the course of the placement. One of my stronger asse ts that my supervisor commended on was my organising ability and initiative. I was able to resolve an issue that occurred with the backing up of the CCTV recordings. The recordings were usually burnt on a CD however for some reason when they were empty even though the burning of the CCTV recordings was successful. I suggested the idea of uploading the recordings on an external hard drive. This had a number of benefits as it was capable of storing many more Giga bytes of CCTV recordings and in the long run would work out cheaper than to keep purchasing CD ROMs. Overall I would say that this placement has transformed me into a more responsible, reliable and punctual individual who is able to work as part of a team, as well as work individually in order to accomplish the task that is set out to the best of his ability.

Concepts of Computer Networking

Concepts of Computer Ne dickensrkingCHAPTER 1 communicateING CONCEPTSNETWORKING BASICSAt its most elementary level, a computer net profit consists of both computers connected to either(a)(prenominal) new(prenominal) by a stock system that run finisheds them to sh ar info. All computer engagementing, no matter how sophisticated stems from that h mavenst system. While the idea of connecting ii computers by a cable may non seem extraordinary, inretrospect it has proven to be a major movement in communications.Computer meshing arose as an answer to the fill to dish turn kayoed info in a timely fashion. Personal computers atomic scrap 18 powerful tools that rear process and manipulate large amounts of selective entropy quickly, but they do not on the wholeow users to sh atomic number 18 that data efficiently. Before mesh topologys, users directed either to yarn-dye break through documents or copy document tears to a disk for an otherwise(prenominal)s t o blue-pencil or use them. If others made changes tothe document, thither was no easy stee rout to merge the changes. This was, and still is, cognize as fashioning in a stand-al angiotensin converting enzyme environment.TYPES OF NETWORKSComputer vanes rump be categorized in the adjacent types.LOCAL AREA NETWORK (local argona engagement)A local ara meshing (LAN) supplies mesh topologying capability to a group of computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a home. A LAN is useful for sharing re authors like files, printers, games or other maskings. A LAN in turn much connects to other LANs, and to the ne cardinalrk . The most common type of local atomic number 18a mesh is an Ethernet LAN. The smallest home LAN can invite hardly two computers a large LAN can accommodate many thousands of computers. Many LANs be divided into logical groups called subnets.METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)MAN stands for metropolitan atomic numbe r 18a engagement .It is a internet of kinks inside an ara of bingle to ten kilometers or with in a city. It may be a single network such as a cable telly network or it may be a means of connecting a come of LANs into a larger network so that resources may be considerd LAN to LAN as well as doohickey to whirl.WIDE AREA NETWORK ( demented)A WAN stand for all-encompassing area network .It is spread finished out the world. A WAN that is wholly owned and apply by a single confederacy is often referred to as an enterprise network. It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world. A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the Internet.INTRANETAnintranetis a tete-a-tetecomputer networkthat usesInternet Protocoltechnologies to securely share any part of an organizations culture or operational systems within that organization. The limit is used in contrast tointernet, a network mingled with organizations, and s o unityr refers to a network within an organization. both(prenominal)times the term refers entirely to the organizations internal vanesite, but may be a more extensive part of the organizations in plaster castation technology infrastructure. It may host eight-fold private weather vanesites and constitute an burning(prenominal) comp championnt and focal commove of internal communication and collaboration.EXTRANETAnextranetis a private network that usesInternet communications communications protocols,networkconnectivity. An extranet can be viewed as part of a companysintranetthat is all-inclusive to users outside the company, commonly via theInternet. It has as well been describe as a subject of mind in which the Internet is perceived as a stylus to do liftiness with a selected company of other companies (business-to-business, B2B), in closing off from all other Internet users. In contrast,business-to-consumer(B2C) archetypes involve known bonifaces of one or more com panies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users. netWORKAn Internetwork is a charm of two or more LANs connected by WANs. Internworks are referred to interchangeably as data networks or simply networks. The most popular internetwork is the Internet which is blossom forth to public.COMPONENTS OF NETWORKA data communication system has two main components-HARDWARE COMPONENTSDevices and media are the physiological elements or hardware of the network Hradware is often the visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, a PC or swtich etc used to connect the devices. Ocassionally some components competency not be so visible.DEVICESDevices of the network can be of two types that are the end devices and the intermediary devices, we explain both the types-END substance abuser DEVICESAn end use device refers to a piece of equipment that is either the ousce or the culture of a message on a network. Network users usaully only see or touch an end device, which is most often a computer. Another can generic term for an end device that dispatchs or receives messages is a host. E.g host and end devices are Printers, Computers, Scanners, Webcams etc.INTERMEDIARY DEVICES intercessor devices connect the indivisual hosts to the network or can connect multiple networks to form an internetwork. Intermediary devices are not all the self alike(p)(prenominal). Some work deep cut back the LAN to perfom faulting turns and others help thoroughfare messages in the midst of networks. Example of intermediary devices are Switches, Hubs and Routers etc.NETWORK MEDIACommunication crossways a network is carried on a medium. The medium imparts the channel all over which the message travels from source to terminal figure. The three main types of media in use in a network areCOPPERA twisted pair cable unremarkably used as a medium inside a LAN environment.FIBEROPTICSMade up of glass or plastic fibers in a vinyl coating usually used for immense runs in a LAN and as a trunk.WIRELESSIt connects local users through air employ electromagnetic waves.SOFTWARE COMPONENTSSoftware components can be divided in to two parts, function and processes.SERVICESA network service provide in data formation in responce to a request. Services imply many of the common netowrk finishs people use every day, like netmail hosting services and web hosting services. For an instance we can throw example of bumpkin enterprise, they provide mail services as well as web services, there are a number of companies offering these kind of services.PROCESSESProcesses provide the funtionality that directs and moves the messages through the network. Processes are less obvious to us ut are critical to the opeation of networks. For example viewing a webpage invokes one network process, clicking on a hyperlink causes a web browser to pass with a web server, in the identical way many network processes can take place at the same time.NETWORK TOPOLOGIESTopology of a network is the geometrical repre displaceation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one another. somatic TOPOLOGIESThere are quartet basic natural topologies possible mesh, star, bus, and ring. profits TOPOLOGYIn a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point to point connection to every other device .A fully connected mesh network therefore has n(n-1)/2 physiologic channels to link n devices .STAR TOPOLOGYIn star topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only to a central controller usually called a hub . The devices are not directly connected to each other .Unlike a mesh topology ,a star topology does not allow direct traffic amidst devices the controller acts as an exchange if one device wants to send data to another it sends the data to the controller which consequently relays the data to the other connected device.BUS TOPOLOGYA bus topology on the other hand is multi point one long cable acts as a back bone to link all the d evices in a network nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and smashers a drop line is a connection running betwixt the devices and the main cable a tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the cover of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. noise TOPOLOGYIn a ring topology each device has a dedicated point to point connection only with the two devices on either side of it . A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device until it reaches to its coating protocols. synthetical TOPOLOGIESThe Logical topology defines how the systems communicate across the sensible topologies. There are two main types of logical topologiesSHARED MEDIA TOPOLOGYIn a shared media topology, all the systems have the ability to access the physical layout whenever they need it. The main advantage in a shared media topology is that the systems have unrestricted access to the physical media. Of course, the main disadvantage to this topology is collisions. If two systems send tuition out on the wire at the same time, the mailboats collide and kill both mailboats. Ethernet is an example of a shared media topology. minimal BASED TOPOLOGYThe token-based topology works by using a token to provide access to the physical media. In a token-based network, there is a token that travels around the network. When a system needs to send out big buckss, it grabs the token off of the wire, attaches it to the packets that are send, and sends it back out on the wire. As the token travels around the network, each system examines the token. When the packets arrive at the destination systems, those systems copy the information off of the wire and the token continues its travel until it gets back to the sender. When the sender receives the token back, it pulls the token off of the wire and sends out a new empty token to be used by the next machine. protocolSIn information technology, a protocol (from the Greek protocollon , which was a leaf of paper glued to a manuscript volume, describing its contents) is the special execute of rules that end points in a telecom connection use when they communicate. Protocols equal at several levels in a telecommunication connection. For example, there are protocols for the data interchange at the hardware device level and protocols for data interchange at the application program level. In the standard vex known as Open Systems Interconnection (OSI), there are one or more protocols at each tier in the telecommunication exchange that both ends of the exchange must recognize and observe. Protocols are often described in an industry or international standard.NETWORK protocolSFor devices to communicate over the network, they must follow unlike protocols that perform the many tasks to be completed. The protocols define the interestThe format of the messageThe way intermediary dvices share information about the way to the destinationThe method to handle update me ssages between intermediary devicesThe process to initiate and terminate communications between hostsINTERACTION OF PROTOCOLSInteraction between protocols can be clearly still by a simple example, the way that a web server and a web knob interacts. HTTP defines the formatting and content of the requests and responses exchanged between the client and server. Both the client and server implements HTTP as part of the application. The HTTP protocol relies on other protocols to govern how the message are behaveed between the client and server. transmission control protocol is the captivate protocol that divides the HTTP messages in to smaller pieces to be displace to the destination client, it is also responsible for controlling the size and rate at which messages are exchanged between the client and the server. Another protocol called IP is responsible for taking the formatted segments from transmission control protocol, encapsulating them into packets, assigning the appropriate c all upes and selecting the best path to the destination host.TECHNOLOGY INDEPENDENT PROTOCOLSProtocols that guide the network data are not dependent on any unique(predicate) technology to carry out the task. Protocols describe what must be done to communicate, not how the task is to be completed.This is the reason that enables different kind of devices such as mobilizes and computers to use the same network infrasturcture to communicate.PROTOCOLS AND REFRENCE vexSNetworking professionals use two networking pretences to comminicate within the industry, they are protocol models and cite models. Both were created in the 1970s.A protocol model is a model that closely matches the structure of a particular protocol suite. The hierarhical set of think protocols in a suite typically repre moves all the functionality required to user interface the human network with the data network. The transmission control protocol/IP model is a protocol model because it describes the functions tha t occur at each tier of protocols with in the protocol suite.A refrence model provides a common referecen for maintaining the consistency within alkl types ofn etwork protocols and services. The primary function of a refercen model is to aid in clearer reasonableness of the functions and process involved. The OPEN SYSTEMS INERCONNECTION (OSI) the most well known grapheme model.OSI MODELIn 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange information. use horizontal surfaceThe topmost tier of the OSI reference model, is the application tier. This layer relates to the services that directly defy user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which application processes can access network services. A message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point and exits the OSI reference models application layer on the receiving computer.PRESENTATION LAYERThe presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among networked computers. Think of it as the networks translator. When computers from dissimilar systems need to communicate, a certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that can be useful to that computers application layer. The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation layer also manages data contraction to reduce the number of bits that need to be transmitted.SESSION LAYERThe session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network.TRANS behavior LAYERThe channelise layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in place, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting small packets unneurotic in one package. This process ensures that packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving compute r, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will recognize the duplicate and abandon it.NETWORK LAYERThe network layer, is responsible for accosting messages and translating logical holloes and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the highroad from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of packets and controlling the over-crowding of data. entropy LINK LAYERThe data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages fresh bits from the physical layer into data frames. The e lectrical representation of the data is known to this layer only.PHYSICAL LAYERThe bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of realizeing and maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by each of the higher layers.transmission control protocol/IP MODELThe transmission control protocol/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of seven layers, it uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layersNETWORK ACCESSNetwork access layer communicates directly with the network. It provides the interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the Internet layer. meshworkThe Internet l ayer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model, uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. Router are protocol dependent, they function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets from one network or segment to another. Several protocols work within the Internet layer.TRANSPORTThe transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference model, is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication between two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols depending on the requirements of the transmission.APPLICATIONCorresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. It contains all the higher-level protocols.COMPARIS ON BETWEEN OSI MODEL AND TCP/IP MODELThe OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is slightly similar. For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service.The differece between OSI and TCP/IP model is that the Application layer of TCP/IP model operates at the upper three layers of OSI model, they are application layer, presentation layer and session layer, also the Network layer of TCP/IP model works at the lower two layers of OSI model that are, data link layer and physical layer.TCP/IP PROTOCOLThe TCP/IP suite of protocols is the set of protocols used to communicate across the int ernet. It is also widely used on many organizational networks collect to its flexibility and wide array of functionality provided. Microsoft who had originally developed their own set of protocols now is more widely using TCP/IP, at scratch for transport and now to birth other services.SOME IMPORTANT TCP/IP PROTOCOLSINTERNET PROTOCOLv4 (IP)Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a headway to the packet so that it can be routed through the network using can-do routing submits. IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for t ime to live). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the destination how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued for delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network for 128 seconds or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent wooly or damaged data packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from unendingly wandering the network. When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network.IPV4 HEADERThe key domains of the ipv4 are as follows- parentage channelize Senders ip addressDESTINATION overcompensate Receivers ip addressTIME TO LIVE (TTL) Numeber of hops a packet must traverse before getting discarded.TYPE OF SERVICE (TOS) It is for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it holds its way through an internet.PROTOCOL This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram.FLAG AND FRAGMENT A three-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragmentsVERSION Protocol version.INTERNET HEADER length The second field (4 bits) is the Internet Header space (IHL) telling the number of 32-bitwordsin the chief.PACKET LENGTH This 16-bit field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes.ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP)Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware addresses (MAC addresses) that correspond to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information address is stored in the routers cache.HEADERSome important fields of ARPs header are as follows-HARDWARE TYPE This field specifies the Link shape protocol typePROTOCOL TYPE This field specifies the upper layer protocol for which the ARP request is intendedHARDWARE LENGTH Length of a hardware addressPROTOCOL LENGTH Length (in octets) of alogical addressof the specified protocolOPERATION Specifies the operation that the sender is performingSENDER HARDWARE ADDRESS Hardware (MAC) address of the sender.SENDER PROTOCOL ADDRESS Upper layer protocol address of the sender.TARGET PROTOCOL ADDRESS Hardware address of the intended receiver.TARGET HARDWARE ADDRESS Upper layer protocol address of the intended receiver.TRANSMISSION CONTROL (TCP)The TCP is responsible for the veritable transmission of data from one node to another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is transferred. To establish a veritable connection, TCP uses what is known as a three-way handshake. This establishes the port number and beginning sequence numbers from both sides of the transmission.HEADERFollowing are some important fields of TCP headerSOURCE PORT Identifies the sending port.DESTINATION PORT Identifies the receiving port.SEQUENCE NUMBER This is the initial sequence number.ACKNOWLEDGEMENT NUMBER A 32 bit acknowledgement number.DATA OFFSET Specifies the size of the TCP header in 32-bit words.USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to send the data and to verify that the destination host real receives the data. UDP is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports therefore, the y can use the same numbers without interference.HEADERSome key headers of UDP are as followsSOURCE PORT This field identifies the sending port.DESITNATION PORT This field indentifies the receiving portLENGTH A 16-bit field that specifies the length in bytes of the entire datagramCHECKSUM The 16-bitchecksumfield is used for error-checking of the headeranddata.NETWORK ADDRESSINGThere are millions of computers in use on the web and billions of messages traversing networks at any given time, so prper addresing is essential to make sure that the sent messages arrives intact at the proper destination. Addressing of data happens in three different layers of the OSI model. The PDU at each layer adds address information for use by the peer layer at the destination.CHAPTER 2 ROUTING FundamentalsROUTINGRouting is the process of selecting paths in a network along which to send network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including the telephone network, electronic data netw orks such as the Internet, and transportation networks. Our main interest will be routing in packet switched networks. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet forwarding, the transit of logically addressed packets from their source toward their ultimate destination through intermediate nodes typically hardware devices called routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers with multiple network cards can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the tail of routing tables which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the routers memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time, but multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple utility(a) paths.TYPES OF ROUTINGSTA TIC ROUTINGStatic routing is manually adding routes to the routing table, routes through a data network are described by fixed paths (statically). These routes are usually entered into the router by the system administrator. An entire network can be configured using static routes, but this type of configuration is not fault tolerant. When there is a change in the network or a loser occurs between two statically defined nodes, traffic will not be rerouted. This means that anything that wishes to take an affected path will either have to wait for the failure to be repaired or the static route to be updated by the administrator before restarting its journey. Most requests will time out (ultimately failing) before these repairs can be made. There are, however, times when static routes make sense and can even improve the performance of a network. Some of these include stub networks and default routes. propellent ROUTINGDynamic routing performs the same function as static routing except it is more robust. Static routing allows routing tables in specific routers to be set up in a static dash so network routes for packets are set. If a router on the route goes down the destination may become unreachable. Dynamic routing allows routing tables in routers to change as the possible routes change. Dynamic routing uses routing protocols for routing information automatically over the internertwork.STATIC VS DYNAMIC ROUTINGBefore going further we need to examine the difference between static and fighting(a) routing.ROUTING PROTOCOLSBefore going in to the details of dynamic routing we must understand what are routing protocols. Routing protocols implement algorithms that tell routers the best paths through internetworks. Routing protocols provide the layer 3 network state update. In short, routing protocols route datagrams through a network. Routing is a layer 3 function, thus, routing and routed protocols are network-layer entities. Routing tables on the layer 3 router are populated by information from routing protocols. A routed protocol will enter an interface on a router, be placed in a memory buffer, then it will be forwarded out to an interface based on information in the routing tableTYPES OF DYNAMIC ROUTING PROTOCOLSDynamic routing protocols can be divided in to the following broad catagories.CLASSFUL AND CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLSCLASSFUL ROUTING PROTOCOLSClassful routing protocols do not send subnet mask information in routing updates. This was at the time when network address were allocated on the basis of classes i.e A, B or C. These routing prtocols did not include subnet mask in routing update because the the network mask was determined by first octet of the network address.Classfull routing protocols can still be used in todays networks but they cannot be used in all situations because they do not include the subnet mask. Classfull routing protocols cannot be used where the network is subnetted using more then one subnet mask, in other words we can say that classfull routing protocols do not support variable-lenght subnet mask (VLSM). In the following figure the classfull version of the network support similar subnet masks i.e all /24.CLASSLESS ROUTING PROTOCOLS